Forests and forestry in Small Island Developing States
M. L. WILKIE1, C. M.. ECKELMANN2, M. LAVERDIÈRE3 and A. MATHIAS4
1 Forestry Officer (Forest Management) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome
2 Forestry Officer, FAO Subregional Office for the Caribbean, Barbados
3 Forest Conservation Officer, FAO Subregional Office for Southern and East Africa, Zimbabwe
4 Forestry Officer, FAO Subregional Office for the Pacific Islands, Samoa
Email: Mette.LoycheWilkie@fao.org
While the combined forest cover of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) is insignificant in global terms, forests and trees on these islands are extremely important for the well-being of the inhabitants. For most of the larger islands, forests also contribute significantly to the national economy and to international trade in wood and non-wood forest products. In addition, forest resources on several islands are of global importance in terms of their role in the conservation of biological diversity, in particular endemic species and genetic variability. As a group, SIDS are well endowed with forests but the extent of forest cover varies greatly among island states. Despite variations in size, location, population density and climatic, geological and topographic conditions, these states share many characteristics which impose particular constraints, but also some which offer unique opportunities, for the sustainable management of their forests and trees.
Keywords: forests, Small Island Developing States, forest cover, biodiversity, sustainable forest management
There is no internationally accepted definition of a Small Island Developing State (SIDS). However, small island states were given an international political identity with the establishment in 1991 of the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) currently comprising 39 members (including four low-lying coastal states: Guinea-Bissau, Belize, Guyana and Suriname) and four dependent territories as observers. Two additional Small Island Developing States are members of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), but not of AOSIS (Bahrain and Dominican Republic) taking the total number of SIDS to 41 for the purpose of this article. Eleven of these states have “least developed country”[1] status within the UN System (UNCTAD 2001).
Table 1 lists the 41 states which are members of FAO and/or of AOSIS as of September 2002.
This paper provides an overview of forests and forestry in these states, including up-to-date information on the state of their forest resources, the role of forests and trees, the constraints and opportunities for sustainable forest management and the medium-term outlook of forestry in the main sub-regional groups.
< Table 1 >
As a group, SIDS are well endowed with forests. According to the recently completed global forest resources assessment coordinated by FAO, forests were estimated to cover a total of 75 million ha or 63 percent of the combined land area of these 41 states in 2000 (Table 2). However, due to the considerable variation in land area (ranging from 20 km2 (Nauru) to more than 450 000 km2 (Papua New Guinea)), population density and climatic, geological and topographic conditions, the extent of forest cover varies greatly among islands. Bahamas, Cook Islands, Palau, the Solomon Islands and two of the low-lying coastal states (Guyana and Suriname) are highly forested with a forest cover ranging from 76 to 96 percent of the total land area. Conversely, 11 of the 41 SIDS have a forest cover of less than 10 percent of the total land area (Bahrain, Barbados, Comoros, Haiti, Maldives, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Nauru, Singapore and Tonga). Four of these (Bahrain, Malta, Marshall Islands and Nauru) reportedly have less than one percent forest cover. No data are available for Tuvalu.
Looking only at island states with a land area of less than 50 000 km2 (i.e. excluding the low-lying coastal states, Papua New Guinea and Cuba) the combined forest cover is estimated at 38.4 percent of total land area in 2000, as compared to the world average of 29.6 percent.
Although the overall rate of deforestation appears to have slowed down in the last decade, the average annual deforestation rate is still high in many SIDS. Of the ten countries with the highest annual deforestation rates between 1990 and 2000 (3 percent or more per annum), four are SIDS (Haiti, St. Lucia, Federated States of Micronesia and Comoros). Only Burundi has a higher deforestation rate than Haiti and St. Lucia (FAO 2001a). The main causes of deforestation include conversion of forested land for agricultural use and for infrastructure development such as roads, ports, housing and tourism development.
Market forces outside the forestry sector can also have a noticeable positive effect on deforestation rates. The Caribbean countries are losing their preferential access to the European banana market and, as a result, the banana industry in the Windward Islands has been declining. This is expected to result in a decrease in the deforestation rate as the demand for additional land obtained through conversion of natural forests is reduced. Decline in sugar cane production, e.g. in St. Kitts and Nevis, has also led to natural expansion of forests which results in a decrease in net deforestation rate (FAO 2001b).
Encouragingly, Bahrain, Cape Verde, Cuba, Cyprus, Grenada and Vanuatu all registered an increase in forest cover from 1990 to 2000, mainly as a result of concerted afforestation efforts[2]. For further details on forest cover and forest cover changes, refer to Table 2.
<Table 2>
In addition to deforestation, forest degradation[3] also takes place in some SIDS. Samoa, the Solomon Islands and Tonga are among countries with high rates of forest degradation due to overexploitation of merchantable timber resources (FAO 1997). Forest degradation due to natural causes (e.g. cyclones and forest fires) is also common in some SIDS.
Trees outside forests (TOF), such as on agricultural land, often play a very important role for local livelihoods in SIDS with limited forest cover. Although unquantified and undervalued, the products yielded by trees outside forests are, nevertheless, often of very significant value. For instance, many small island nations have abundant coconut tree resources, which serve as sources of timber, coconuts, copra and oil for local populations. (See Thaman in this issue for more information on the importance of trees outside forests in SIDS).
While the forest cover on the 41 island states considered here is insignificant in global terms (representing less than 1 percent of the forest area of the world), forests and trees on these islands are extremely important for the well-being of the inhabitants. In addition, forest resources on several islands have global significance in terms of conservation of biological diversity. For most of the larger islands, forests also contribute significantly to the national economy. Some of the major roles of forests and trees in small island developing states are outlined below.
Fifteen SIDS list timber or hardwood forests as one of their main natural resources[4]. Of these, Fiji, Guyana, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Suriname and Vanuatu report wood processing as one of their main industries.
Table 3 lists the latest available figures for production, trade and consumption of forest products for SIDS. With regard to industrial roundwood, Papua New Guinea is, by far, the largest SIDS producer and exporter and is currently the world’s third largest exporter of tropical hardwood logs with the annual trade valued at more than US$ 220 million (FAO 2000a). However, compared to their actual land or forest area, countries such as Fiji, Samoa and the Solomon Islands have a higher rate of production of industrial roundwood than Papua New Guinea and the low-lying coastal states. The Solomon Islands was thus the world’s fifth largest exporter of tropical hardwood logs in 1997, when forestry comprised more than 50 percent of export revenues. Although the annual volume of hardwood exported as logs had been reduced to almost half of the 1996 volume by 2000, the Solomon Islands was still among the top ten exporting countries (FAO 200a). Sandalwood has been a notable export from Vanuatu for more than a century.
Conversely, many of the smaller states in Oceania and the Indian Ocean and all the Caribbean states except Cuba are dependent on imports to meet all or the major part of their needs for sawnwood and wood-based panels. All SIDS are dependent on imported paper and paperboard. Countries which rely on imports for fuelwood and charcoal and/or industrial roundwood include Barbados, Bahamas, Dominican Republic, St. Lucia, Malta, Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, and Tonga. Despite the fact that Carribean states depend on imports of sawnwood, it has been suggested that, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, for example, could produce enough to meet national demand for sawn timber with only 1500 ha of forest plantations (FAO 1998). The current area of plantations in this country is estimated at 250 ha (FAO 2001a).
<Table 3>
Commercially important non-wood forest products (NWFPs) include kava (Piper methysticum), noni (Morinda citrifolia) juice, rattan (Calamus spp.), oil from sandalwood (Santalum spp.) and canarium (Canarium indicum) nuts in the Pacific; ornamental plants, such as Trochetia boutoniana, in Mauritius and cinnamon in the Seychelles. Nuts of the endemic Coco-de-mer brings more revenue to the Government of the Seychelles than wood production (Vielle 2001).
In the Caribbean, the most important NWFPs are medicinal and aromatic plants (including candlewood (Amyris balsamifera), citronella (Cymbopogon citratus) rosewood (Aniba rosaeodora) and sassafras (Ocotea pretiosa)). Grenada is the world’s second largest producer of essential oils derived from the seeds of the nutmeg tree, Myristica fragrans. Some 25 percent of the world production come from Grenada contributing around 40 percent of the country’s export revenue despite a recent decline due to decreased demand and competition from other countries. The heart of the manicole palm (Euterpe oleracea) is an important export products in Guyana and the principal source of income for Amerindian communities in the coastal wetlands. Annual production rose to more than 1.5 million tonnes in 1995 with export revenues of US$ 2 million. Edible forest fruits such as maripa (Astrocaryum maripa) and awara (Astrocaryum segregatum) are exported from Suriname. (FAO 2001a). Trade in wild animals is also important for some SIDS, with Guyana being the fifth largest exporter of wild birds in the world (Forestry Commission 2000). Mauritius is exporting about 7 000 monkeys annually. The Macaca fascicularis was introduced to Mauritius in the 16th century and has become a threat to the native fauna and flora. Feral monkeys are captured and bred in captivity for export. For every animal exported US$ 50 are contributed to the Wildlife Conservation Fund to be utilised for the conservation of indigenous biodiversity (Paupiah 2001).
Forests and trees contribute directly to food security through the provision of edible forest products such as fruits, nuts and berries, leaves, shoots, roots, mushrooms, animals (mammals, rodents, fish, birds and insects) and animal products (e.g. honey, eggs and bird’s nests).
A report by FAO on the uses of trees and forests in the Pacific noted: “Food from trees are of immense value, whether as staples, supplementary foods, occasional snacks or famine foods. The nutritional importance of dominant staple tree crops such as coconut, breadfruit and bananas and plantains, fruit and nut trees, spices and sauces, and wildfoods is critical to the nutritional wellbeing of Pacific island peoples.” (FAO 1995).
In the Caribbean, important edible products include fruits such as maripa (Astrocaryum maripa) and awara (Astrocaryum segregatum) in Suriname and balata (Manilkara bidentata), hog plum (Spondias mombin) and serrette (Brysonima coriacea) in Trinidad and Tobago (FAO 2001a). Beekeeping is an important activity in many countries including the Dominican Republic and Cuba and dependence on wildlife species for protein is high in SIDS with dense forest cover. Edible forest plants also provide essential vitamins and trace elements to local populations, which may be of particular importance to children and women.
For 75 to 90 percent of the people in developing countries, natural products represent the only source of medicine. It is, for example, estimated that there are 250 to 500 plants with curative properties in the Seychelles and the Department of Industry is currently conducting a survey and analysis of these aimed at establishing a national data bank with information on species distribution, chemical and pharmaceutical properties and ethno-botanical knowledge (Vielle 2001).
Many of the foods consumed today originated as wild crops in forests including breadfruit, bananas, plantains, cocoa, cola nut, coffee, mango, pawpaw, guava and avocado. Such major staples as yams and cowpeas probably evolved on the forest margins and wild rice originated in swampy areas of the forest. Oil palms and the shea butter tree are other important food producing species originating in forests and woodlands. (Ball et al. 1995) Genetic improvement of these crops has much to gain from existing wild species, which may possess valuable traits that can be incorporated into their cultivated relatives to make them hardier and more disease resistant. Forests and trees also provide browse and fodder for domestic animals – not least in periods of drought.
Most staple foods are unpalatable if not cooked. Forests and trees provide the necessary fuelwood and charcoal for local and national needs in many SIDS. Detailed national level information on the consumption of woodfuels is missing from 24 of the 41 SIDS. However, available information shows that, in 1995, inhabitants of Samoa, Trinidad and Tobago, Guinea Bissau, Papua New Guinea and Haiti relied on woodfuels to meet from 30 to 98 percent of their total energy needs - much of this being used for cooking purposes (FAO 2002). Fuelwood is also an essential resource for food preservation, in particular for smoking and drying (e.g. fish). Wood and non-wood fibre resources are furthermore often used for production of agricultural implements, food containers, boats and canoes, hunting and fishing gear. Live fencing and wooden fences play a very important role in supporting food security by keeping out unwanted animals.
In addition to the above direct benefits, forests and trees have important environmental and social functions, which indirectly contribute to food security. Coral based soils, which are common in many SIDS, are among the least fertile in the world. Increased organic matter provided by trees improves soil fertility by increasing the water retention capacity, reducing soil pH, providing nutrients, reducing the leaching effects of wind and rains and reducing run-off and evaporation. These soil improvement roles of trees are of great importance to the success of agriculture and plant growth in atolls and other coral-based islands.
Forests are home to millions of people worldwide and although the number of forest dwellers may not be large in small islands, many people depend on nearby forests for their livelihood. Income and employment provided by forestry activities increase the possibility of rural communities to purchase food and other basic necessities. The specialised economies of many small island countries depend also, in a wider sense, on the protective, ecological, amenity and aesthetic functions of their forests and trees as discussed below.
Because of their small land area, most SIDS are characterised by comparatively short distances between uplands and coastal areas. Under such conditions, forest ecosystems are critical as regulators of water supply (for consumption, irrigation and industrial uses and for generation of energy) in terms of both quantity and quality.
The provision of potable water is, perhaps, the most important function of the forest in the Caribbean islands. In the Windward Islands all the water for household and industrial purposes is surface water taken from streams in the forest. Such water does not require complicated treatment nor does it require energy to transport it to the consumer, as it is gravity fed directly into the households. This service is highly appreciated by the inhabitants but, as it is taken for granted, there is little inclination to include this benefit in national accounting or to compensate the forest service for safeguarding the provision of water.
Forest cover, by preventing erosion, is also important for the maintenance of soil fertility and the health of the marine environment. A problem of considerable concern in many islands is the high sediment load in rives which, when deposited in the sea, smothers coral reefs and other coastal environments such as sea grass beds.
Another important protective role for forests in small islands, in particular in the tropics, is as a means of coastal protection. Tropical storms, hurricane and cyclones combined with high rainfall levels and storm surges are common occurrences in many islands. Forests act as buffers against the impacts of these and protect agricultural land from the effects of salt spray.
Due to their size and physical isolation from other land masses, small islands generally do not posses a high degree of biological diversity in terms of number of different plant and animal species. However, the percentage of endemic species is often very high. Examples include Dominican Republic, Fiji, Haiti, Jamaica and Mauritius, in which more than 30 percent of the higher plant species are endemic. With regard to birds, Fiji and the Solomon Islands have 24 and 20 percent endemism respectively. Half of the mammal species of Mauritius, one third of those in the Solomon Islands and a quarter of those in Fiji are found nowhere else. (WRI/UNEP/UNDP/World Bank 1996). Many of these endemic plant and animal species are found in forests.
The conservation of biological diversity - both directly in the forest and indirectly by protecting associated ecosystems such as coral reefs - is, therefore, one of the most important environmental roles played by forests in small islands, also from a global perspective. In recognition of their important heritage, most Small Island Developing States are signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity and almost all of the Pacific nations are signatory to the Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region.
A prominent environmental role of coastal forests such as mangroves and tidal forests is the production of leaf litter and detrital matter, which enters the marine food web. Mangroves are found in all but four (Cape Verde, Cyprus, Cook Islands and Malta) of the 41 SIDS and are highly productive ecosystems. Their importance as feeding ground, breeding and nursery grounds for numerous commercial fish and shellfish – including most commercial tropical shrimps – is well established. In addition, mangroves act as a sediment trap for upland run-off sediments, thus protecting sea grass beds, coral reefs and shipping lanes from siltation and reducing water turbidity. (Geoghegan and Smith in this issue present case studies and actions plans on the conservation and management of this important ecosystem).
Forest based tourism and recreation is on the increase. Whereas forests may rarely be the primary attraction for overseas visitors, they have a great potential, in some islands to complement dive sites and other primary attractions. The Forestry Departments in Dominica and St. Lucia, for instance, earn significant revenue from entrance fees for National Parks and for access to renovated forest trails respectively. In Mauritius, a mangrove forest was restored by the owner of a hotel who uses this ecosystem to make guided walks and attract tourists, and on the island of Dominica forest-based ecotourism is showing great potential (Hypolite et al. in this issue).
In addition, coastal forests are critical in maintaining the health of coral reefs, which, in turn, protect beaches from sand erosion. Thus, in the Caribbean and some Pacific island states, they are an indirect but essential resource for maintaining and enhancing the appeal of tropical islands to the mainstream tourism industry.
These many and important roles of forests and trees in small islands call for a holistic and integrated approach to forest conservation and development taking into account not only the direct benefits obtainable from the forests but also the links with associated natural ecosystems and other economic sectors.
Small island countries vary a great deal according to distinct geographic, biological, social, cultural, and economic characteristics but share many common disadvantages, which constrain their efforts to conserve and sustainably use their forest resources. These constraints include the following:
Small land area and natural resources and high population pressure
Relief, soil characteristics, climatic conditions and the small size[5] of island countries limit the amount of land available for productive purposes and intensify competition among alternative land use options including land which must be protected (forested watersheds, national parks and protected areas). Population density is usually high and concentrated in lowland and coastal areas, which increases pressure on already limited resources in such areas. As a result, there are only limited options for diversification of economic activities in the forestry sector.
Due to the high population density in the Caribbean islands (with an average of 151 persons per km2 compared to an average of 55 persons per km2 in Central America), most of the land with a potential for agriculture was cleared of forest during the early decades of colonisation. The remaining forest is now concentrated in rugged and inaccessible areas, which reduces the potential to harvest and manage the forest for production purposes. In Dominica, for example, only 20 percent of the forest area can be used for productive forestry. The remainder is either too steep, inaccessible or is set aside for watershed protection or biodiversity conservation (FAO 1992).
With few exceptions, these nations are susceptible to tropical storms, hurricanes, cyclones, storm surges, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, forest fires and landslides[6]. Since damage often occurs on a national scale; a single disaster can cripple an island’s infrastructure and economy. Like all land based systems in small islands and low-lying coastal areas, forests are threatened in the long term by rising sea levels associated with global climate change.
Several forest plantation projects in SIDS have been devastated by cyclones in the recent past. In January 1990 Samoa's plantation estate stood at 4 392 hectares. Cyclones Ofa and Val (along with stands which were written off due to poor establishment) destroyed 92 percent of this area. In September 1995 only 350 hectares of the original plantings remained (FAO 1997). And another example: “The management of all of the pine plantations (on Fiji) is dominated by uncertainty over their future growth due to the incidence of cyclones and a high fire hazard” (Ball 1993). Efforts at tree improvement have been severely hampered in Fiji due to damage caused to seed stands and research trials by cyclones (Ball 1993). Forest fires, caused by natural or man made events, can also be a serious constraint to sustainable forest development.
With regard to sea level rise caused by global warming, it is estimated that, by the end of the century, mean temperatures for the small islands regions may increase by around 3ºC, resulting in an increase in global sea level of about 50cm by 2100, thus severely threatening islands and low-lying coastal states. Global warming is also likely to lead to an increase in maximum tropical cyclone wind speeds and lower central pressures, leading to more damaging storm surges. The combined effects of increases in cyclone intensities and sea-level rise are one of the major threats to the future well-being of small island countries. Model-based studies suggest that by 2080 the number of people flooded by these greater storm surges in any typical year will be more than five times higher than present. The islands of the Caribbean, the Indian and Pacific Oceans face the largest relative increase in flood risk, with the number of people at risk being some 200 times higher than in most other parts of the world. (Hay 2000).
A high degree of endemism, but relative small population size of the individual plant and animal species, imposes high risks of species extinction brought on by deforestation, unsustainable forestry and agricultural practices, unmanaged tourism and the introduction of exotic species. (See Dulloo in this issue) At the same time, the small size of many SIDS makes it difficult to set aside large areas for strict protection purposes. Of particular concern to production forestry is also the considerable erosion of forest genetic resources, which has occurred in association with deforestation and forest degradation. A number of socio-economically important tree species, including more sought‑after commercial timber species such as sandalwood (Santalum spp.), kauri pine (Agathis spp.) and rosewood (Pterocarpus indicus) and species used for traditional handicrafts such as Cordia subcordata, Intsia bijuga and Thespesia populnea, are, for instance, endangered in all or part of their natural range in the South Pacific (AUSAID 1997). There is thus a clear need to develop suitable strategies for the conservation of biological diversity. The article by Pouli et al. in this issue describes the development of strategies for two important tree species in the Pacific.
Not only are they small in total area, but many SIDS (particularly in the Pacific) consist of numerous smaller islands, often spread out over a large area and far away from nearby land masses and their markets. This results in high costs for public administration and infrastructure including transport and communications; small internal markets; limited export volumes, sometimes from remote locations and at irregular intervals due to the limited resource base, leading to high freight costs and reduced competitiveness and difficulties in establishing competitive forest processing industries. As a result, locally produced goods are often more expensive than imported ones - unless protection tariffs are imposed. Table 3 highlights the dependence on imported wood products by all but the largest SIDS.
Forests are not high on the list of priorities in most of the smaller SIDS and articulated up-to-date forest policies are rare, even when forest legislation is in place. Forest agencies, where they exist, often have limited financial and human resources, which compounded by the effects of high levels of emigration of skilled people poses a major constraint. Forest-related activities are frequently supported by external assistance and only limited follow-up takes place when some of these projects come to an end. Inadequate information on the resource base makes it difficult to effectively address the issues at hand.
In many small island states in the Pacific, land is generally under customary ownership (i.e. owned communally or by families rather than by the state or by individuals). Where land tenure is individual, the inheritance system either fragments physical parcels of land (e.g. Kiribati) or fragments ownership rights (e.g. Cook Islands and Nauru, where pieces of land too small to support a single family may have a hundred or more legal owners (Cocombe 1987)). Natural resource management thus involves many stakeholders and decision makers and presents a major challenge for wildlife conservation and sustainable forest management efforts. Insecure tenure, e.g. by those renting or illegally occupying cleared forest land in some of the Caribbean islands, and absentee land owners are major impediments to promotion of soil conservation measures, agroforestry systems and the establishment of private plantations (FAO, 2001b).
Limited natural resources, competition for land and adverse cross-sectoral impacts of different land uses call for integrated land use planning. However, only few SIDS have well defined land use plans.
Unsustainable forest management practices have, in some instances, led to the degradation of forest resources, soil erosion and siltation of downstream areas. Overexploitation of commercial timber resources is not uncommon and inappropriate harvesting practices are often employed. Forest industries are frequently running below capacity. Technical constraints to plantation development and tree planting programmes include the lack of access to seed of high genetic and physiological quality (AUSAID 1997).
The long time frame needed combined with the risk of natural calamities and possible changes in legal provisions (e.g. land tenure) can be a major disincentive to tree planting and sustainable forest management by private individuals.
The short-term prospects for an increase of wood production in natural forests are limited in most SIDS. Although many of the larger SIDS are well endowed with forests, not all forests are accessible and harvesting of commercial species is, in many places, already undertaken at unsustainable levels. In the medium- to long-term, such increases depend on the adoption of environmentally sound forest harvesting practices and the application of appropriate silvicultural practices - in many cases including enrichment planting of previously harvested areas. On a positive note, the countries in the Pacific have developed a regional “Code of Conduct for Logging of Indigenous Forests in Selected South Pacific Countries” which was endorsed by the 26th South Pacific Forum meeting in September 1995. At that time, only Fiji had developed its own national code of logging practice (launched in 1990 and fully implemented by 1996). PNG, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu have subsequently developed national codes based on the regional code, and are in various stages of implementing these.
An increase in wood production from plantations is possible in some of the larger SIDS. Fiji is an example of a country, which already has a well established plantation development programme and where plantation based timber production is planned to become a major growth sector in the national economy. However, the competition for limited land area, at times combined with customary ownership (see above), limits the potential for large-scale plantation establishment in many states. Lack of good soils is also a limiting factor in some SIDS - particularly those which are coral-based.
Agroforestry systems with coconut as the main wood resource seem to hold the most promising prospect as a sustainable land use system for atolls with low soil fertility as well as for smaller states, where availability of land is a limiting factor.
Where planting of trees is undertaken in areas prone to cyclones, species which exhibit good resistance to wind damage should be promoted. In the Pacific, these include Intsia bijuga and Pometia pinnata, which in Samoa suffered only minor damage from cyclone Ofa in 1991. Whitewood (Endospermum medullosum), kauri pine (Agathis spp.) and Terminalia richii are other examples of indigenous species in the South Pacific, which are well-adapted to withstand cyclone-force winds.
Value-added wood processing, in particular of local hardwoods, offers good prospects for diversification in those SIDS well endowed with forests. Good prospects also exist for diversification in terms of the provision of non-wood forest products, where niche markets are present or can be developed, and, in some cases, for bio-prospecting - taking advantage of the unique genetic resources found in many islands.
Tourism is currently one of the most important income earning industries in many SIDS endowed with tropical climate and sandy beaches, and interest in eco- or nature-based tourism is increasing[7]. Whereas the forests on these islands rarely are the primary attraction for overseas visitors, they may contribute to the tourism appeal. Various islands have already made special efforts to develop the tourist potential of their forest areas, among which are Pohnpei in the Federated States of Micronesia, Mauritius and the Seychelles, Dominica, Jamaica and St. Lucia.
The short distance between highlands and coastal areas and the relatively limited size of watersheds combine to make soil and water conservation a priority. Special efforts may be needed in terms of reforestation of degraded watersheds and in most islands, planting in coastal areas is necessary to protect against coastal erosion and the effects of strong winds. Protection of mangrove areas, which are highly resistant to storm damage, is particularly important in this regard.
Conservation of biological diversity is of economic importance both from a productive (forestry and agriculture) point of view and in support of nature based tourism activities. One solution to the tenure problem in the South Pacific has been the development of Wildlife Management Areas (WMA) in Papua New Guinea. These are established, at the request of local land owners to regulate hunting and protect the habitat of rare and important animals such as the Birds of Paradise. The Government provides legal recognition to WMA, but land ownership remains in the hand of local people. The WMA concept accommodates the particular conditions that prevail in many Pacific nations, and could perhaps be applied in neighbouring island states.
Countries such as Belize, Fiji, and Papua New Guinea have already implemented projects aimed at offsetting carbon emissions through plantations and forest protection under the pilot phase of activities implemented jointly (AIJ) launched by the fifth meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP 5) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Other countries like Solomon Islands and Vanuatu are also trying to integrate carbon offset components into forest management projects (FAO 1999).
Given the small size, limited human resources and physical isolation of SIDS, sub-regional collaboration is of great importance. Fortunately, a long tradition of inter-island trade and collaboration exists and a large number of regional organisations are found. The importance on the Alliance of Small Island States should also be highlighted. This alliance, established in 1991 primarily as a result of concerns about global warming and rise in sea levels, has successfully created awareness of the constraints to sustainable development that Small Island Developing Countries face by virtue of their small size. At the Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States held in Bridgetown, Barbados, April 25-May 6, 1994 a call was made for the assistance of regional and international entities to engage in a program of action aimed at the sustainable development of the SIDS. The Barbados Program of Action, drawn up at the 1994 conference, is the subject of periodic review by the United Nations General Assembly. In 1999, the FAO approved an Action Plan for agriculture, forestry and fisheries for SIDS. (See Ball in this issue for more information on international and regional organisations and initiatives related to SIDS).
The Melanesian SIDS (Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Fiji and Vanuatu) are all relatively well endowed with significant land area, fertile soils and natural resources. Their export bases are, however, narrow. The medium- to long-term forestry prospects will rely on the adoption of sustainable forest management practices in the natural forests; the establishment of plantations and the further development of appropriate wood processing industries (FAO 1997).
The SIDS of Polynesia and Micronesia are generally less well endowed with resources. Those which are of volcanic origin, (e.g. Samoa and Tonga) have rich soils and agriculture and/or forestry provide development options. Samoa is presently the only Polynesian country with a timber export industry. However, most of the smaller islands are coral-based and have very poor soils, small land areas and few land-based natural resources. Tourism, fisheries, foreign aid and expatriate remittances are likely to be the main income earning possibilities in these islands. Agroforestry systems with coconut as the main timber resource seem to hold the most promising prospect as a sustainable land use system for these islands (FAO 1997).
In the East African SIDS, an important focus is the conservation and restoration of forests. This is essential to maintain or improve habitats, to protect watersheds and to contribute to the important tourism industry, which uses the forests for recreation. The countries use selected indigenous trees for timber but will continue importing most of their wood from nearby countries (Madagascar, Mozambique and Tanzania). In the Seychelles, the three main priorities are thus listed as: environmental conservation and maintenance of the biodiversity in order to continue to attract tourists; conservation of soil and water resources; and the development of small-scale wood and non-wood forest industries (Vielle 2001). In Mauritius, it is expected that about 8 000 ha of forest lands will be lost in the next two decades due to population growth and the need for additional agricultural land. This will have a significant effect on the production of pink pepper (Schinus terebentifolia) which is likely to decline from 50 to 25 tonnes per year. Conversely, demand for fuel wood is expected to fall and concerted efforts may bring back a substantial number of highly endangered species from the brink of extinction. The demand for wood products is expected to be met from plantations and imports. (Paupiah 2001).
In the Caribbean, the general trends include a slow but progressive move towards a more sustainable management of forests, an increase in the reliance on plantations for commercial timber harvesting although most islands will remain dependent on imports of forest products, intensification of watershed management and protection, continued development of conservation strategies, increased recognition of ecotourism, bio-prospecting and carbon credit trading as alternative forest income and continued and increased community involvement in forest management (FAO 2000b).
In many of the islands, the main focus is expected to continue to be on tourism, the safeguarding of freshwater supply and conservation of biological diversity. Nevertheless, production of wood and non-wood forest products could play an increasingly important role in import substitution as land use for commercial agriculture is expected to decrease in some of the islands and such lands become available for plantation establishment or revert to forest through natural regeneration (FAO 2000b). Such natural expansion of forests can already be witnessed in Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, St Vincent and the Grenadines, St Kitts and Nevis.
The lowland forests of Belize, Guyana and Suriname are of a great economic potential, but the timber and other forest resources are heavily under-priced and an inadequate contribution is currently received from their utilization. All countries are expected to change their forest management progressively aiming at sustainable forest management and the enhanced provision of social and environmental services provided by forests. (FAO 2000b). Given the current trends in national development priorities, it is expected that the forest cover of Belize will decrease. However, the growing stock could be in a better condition in terms of species composition and biomass if the trend to intensify forest management in key areas is maintained and the wood production level may only decrease in the short term and could reach a sustained level in fifteen to twenty years. More direct involvement of local community-based and non-governmental organisations in forest management is also expected. (Forest Department, MNREI 2000). In Guyana, the three main priorities for the medium term are: an increase in the economic benefits derived from forests; improved sustainability of the forest-based sector and better sharing of the benefits of forest-based development (Forestry Commission 2000).
As a group, Small Island Developing States are relatively well endowed with forests, but large variations exist between islands. While the combined forest cover of these islands is insignificant in global terms, forests and trees are extremely important for the well-being of the local inhabitants in terms of their contribution to food security and income, water conservation and coastal protection. For most of the larger islands, forests also contribute significantly to the national economy and to international trade in wood and non-wood forest products. In addition, the forests on several islands are of global importance in terms of their role in the conservation of biological diversity, in particular endemic species and genetic variability. These many and important roles of forests and trees call for a holistic and integrated approach to forest conservation and development taking into account not only the direct benefits obtainable from the forests but also the links with associated natural ecosystems and other economic sectors.
Although Small Island Developing States are spread around the globe and differ to a very large extent in terms of geographic, biological, social, cultural, and economic characteristics, they share many common constraints but also several unique opportunities for the conservation and sustainable use of their forest resources. The extent to which they will be able to overcome the constraints and capitalise on the opportunities depends on political will, regional collaboration and international support - not least in terms of the development and implementation of disaster reduction strategies and assistance when environmental disasters do strike.
REFERENCES
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BALL, J.B. 1993. Travel report Thailand, Australia and Fiji, 2 - 24 October 1993. Unpublished. FAO, Rome.
BALL, J.B., BRAATZ, S. and CHANDRASEKHARAN, C. 1995. It starts with “F” and that stands for Food! Ceres 154: 39-44.
COCOMBE R. (ed) 1987. Land tenure in the Pacific. University of the South Pacific
FAO 2002. Woodfuel consumption. Wood Energy Information System. http://www.fao.org/forestry/FOP/FOPH/ENERGY/databa-e.stm
FAO 2001a. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000. Main report. Forestry paper 140. Rome
FAO 2001b. Report of the Caribbean Expert Consultation on Private Forestry Programmes - Ideas to promote forest activities on private land. Mt. St. Benedict, Trinidad and Tobago, 28 - 31 August 2001. FAO, Barbados.
FAO 2000a. FAO Yearbook of Forest Products 1996-2000. FAO Forestry Series no. 35. Rome.
FAO 2000b. Proceedings of sub-regional workshop on data collection and outlook effort for forestry in the Caribbean, Port-Of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, 21-25 February 2000. FAO, Rome.
FAO 1999. Environment and natural resources in Small Island Developing States. FAO Ministerial Conference on Small Island Developing States (SIDS) 1999. SIDS 99: Inf 5. FAO, Rome.
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FAO 1997. Regional Study - the South Pacific. Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study. Working Paper No. APFSOS/WP/01.
FAO 1995. Samoa, Tonga, Kiribati and Tuvalu: A review of uses and status of trees and forests in land use systems with recommendations for future actions, based on the work of R. R. Thaman and W.A. Whistler. TSS-1 Technical Support Services at Programme Level, UNDP/FAO/RAS/92/T04 (Project Document). FAO, Rome.
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Forest Department, MNREI 2000. Belize. Country Report: Forestry Outlook Study for the Caribbean. In: FAO Proceedings of Sub-regional workshop on data collection and outlook effort for forestry in the Caribbean, Port-Of-Spain, Trinidad & Tobago, 21-25 February 2000. FAO, Rome.
GUYANA FORESTRY COMMISSION 2000. Guyana. Country Report: Forestry Outlook Study for the Caribbean. In: FAO Proceedings of sub-regional workshop on data collection and outlook effort for forestry in the Caribbean, Port-Of-Spain, Trinidad & Tobago, 21-25 February 2000. FAO, Rome.
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VIELLE, M. DE K.S. 2001. Country Report – Seychelles. Forestry Outlook Study for Africa Working Paper 38. FAO, Rome.
WTO/UNEP 2002. Concept Paper - International Year of Ecotourism 2002. http://www.world-tourism.org/sustainable/IYE/WTO-UNEP-Concept-Paper.htm
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TABLE 1 List of SIDS which are members of AOSIS and/or of FAO
|
Africa: Cape Verde Comoros Guinea Bissau Mauritius São Tomé and Principe Seychelles Europe: Malta Oceania: Cook Islands Federated States of Micronesia Fiji Kiribati Marshall Islands Nauru Niue Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Tonga Tuvalu* Vanuatu |
Asia: Bahrain** Cyprus Maldives Singapore* North and Central America: Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Barbados Belize Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic** Grenada Haiti Jamaica Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and Grenadine Trinidad and Tobago South America: Guyana Suriname |
* = Not member of FAO, but member of the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS)
** = Not member of AOSIS, but member of FAO
TABLE 2 Forest cover 2000 and changes in forest cover 1990-2000 for Small Island Developing States
|
Land Area |
Total forest 2000
|
Total forest 1990 |
Forest cover change 1990-2000 |
||||
|
|
Area |
Percentage of land area |
Area |
Total change 1990-2000 |
Annual change 1990-2000 |
||
|
000 ha |
000 ha |
% |
000 ha |
000 ha |
000 ha |
% |
|
|
Cape Verde |
403 |
85 |
21.1 |
35 |
50 |
5 |
9.3 |
|
Comoros |
186 |
8 |
4.3 |
12 |
-4 |
n.s. |
-4.3 |
|
Guinea Bissau |
3,612 |
2,187 |
60.5 |
2,403 |
-216 |
-22 |
-0.9 |
|
Mauritius |
202 |
16 |
7.9 |
17 |
-1 |
n.s. |
-0.6 |
|
São Tomé and Principe |
95 |
27 |
28.3 |
27 |
n.s. |
n.s. |
n.s. |
|
Seychelles |
45 |
30 |
66.7 |
30 |
n.s. |
n.s. |
n.s. |
|
Total African SIDS |
4,543 |
2,353 |
51.8 |
2,524 |
-171 |
-17 |
-0.70 |
|
Bahrain |
69 |
n.s. |
n.s. |
n.s. |
n.s. |
n.s. |
14.9 |
|
Cyprus |
925 |
172 |
18.6 |
119 |
53 |
5 |
3.7 |
|
Maldives |
30 |
1 |
3.3 |
1 |
n.s. |
n.s. |
n.s. |
|
Singapore* |
61 |
2 |
3.3 |
2 |
n.s. |
n.s. |
n.s. |
|
Total Asian SIDS |
1,085 |
175 |
16.1 |
122 |
53 |
5 |
|